The Age of Enlightenment was a period in early modern history when western societies, led by its intellectuals, made a marked shift from religion based authority to one of scientific reason. Prior to this period, the Church and the State were intricately interlinked; and the Enlightenment sought to sever states and politics from religion through the application of rational analysis based on scientific observation and facts. This movement traces its origins to the seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe. Similar undercurrents of scientific expression were seen in the New World as well, most notably from such intellectuals such as Tom Paine and other proponents of American independence. The rest of the essay will foray into the wider implications of the Enlightenment and try to capture its significance to the academia of today.
The Enlightenment has had a profound impact on the cultural evolution of Western Europe in particular and the whole of the continent in general. A landmark piece of scholarship that turned the tables in favor of scientific reasoning is Newton’s analysis and description of natural physical phenomena. The immediate impact was discernible in written literature of the day, due to the scope of this medium of art (Brians, Paul, 1998). On the other hand, it took longer for ideas of the Enlightenment to penetrate into art forms such as music and painting due to the emphasis on traditionally acquired technique in these art forms. While it is difficult to categorize the newly evolving artistic manifestations of the time, a few broad trends could be noted. For example,
“At the opening of the century, baroque forms were still popular, as they would be at the end. They were partially supplanted, however, by a general lightening in the rococo motifs of the early 1700s. This was followed, after the middle of the century, by the formalism and balance of neoclassicism, with its resurrection of Greek and Roman models. Although the end of the century saw a slight romantic turn, the era’s characteristic accent on reason found its best expression in neoclassicism.” (Hackett, 1992)
As mentioned before, this rise of neoclassical artistic expression found its highest glory in the Literature of the day. All forms of literature, ranging from prose, narrative verse, poetry, plays, etc were infused with newly discovered scientific truths and newly evolving systems of natural philosophy. Such luminaries as Alexander Pope, Phyllis Wheatley, Voltaire and Jonathan Swift among others were at the forefront of this paradigm change in socio-cultural expression. A special mention has to be made on the role of the Novel in this epoch making age. The broad scope of intellectual discourse offered by the Novel was utilized very cleverly and ingenuously by such writers as Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richarrdson, Henry Fielding, Aphra Behn, Fanny Burney, etc (Paul Brians, 1998).
Given the revolutionary change in the cultural landscape that the Enlightenment affected, it is easy to see its relevance to the academia of today. In many ways, the academia is burdened with the legacy of the Enlightenment, in that, modern societies have come to expect radical theories and systems of thought to emerge from the confines of a University. Also, most universities are adequately resourced in terms of comprehensive libraries and other resources. These factors make the modern academic environment the most suitable place for the continuation of the legacy of the Enlightenment (Hackett, 1992).
The area where the ideas of the Enlightenment made radical changes was in the realm of political thought and systems of civil administration. It has to be remembered that most geographical regions of the day were part of one kingdom or the other and totalitarianism in the form of monarchy was the accepted social order. The transformation from this oppressive political system to modern forms of democracy, as evident today, has to be attributed to the Enlightenment. Some of the most prominent thinkers who helped shape this new political consciousness were Diderot, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Rousseau, Adam Smith, etc. The following passage gives a concise account of Rousseau’s contribution to modern political thought:
“Physical, intellectual and economic equality are beyond human remedy. The state, according to Rousseau can interfere with property only if legal and moral equality is jeopardized. In his book Emile he explains that the young must learn the compulsion of things but be protected from the tyranny of men. All must obey the general will as a law of nature, not as an alien command but because of necessity. This is only possible if society makes the laws which it obeys. Hence a radical political and social revolution is necessary. He demanded man’s mastery over nature and projected a moral rationalism.” (Gerhard Rempel, Age of Enlightenment)
The work of Adam Smith in particular is the cornerstone of modern economics. Even to this day, he is perceived as the father of modern economics, his most influential scholarly work being “The Wealth of Nations”, which is still an integral component of any humanities curricula. This fact emphasizes the connection between the Enlightenment of a few centuries ago and the modern university. In spite of the distance in time, the spirit of the Enlightenment is at its most radiant in contemporary academia, which remains largely independent and objective; as opposed to the mainstream media institutions, which are subject to political influence and corporate pressure (May, 1976).
To gain a better understanding of why this movement turned out to be so pivotal in the course of modern world history, it is imperative that we trace its roots. The thirteenth century philosopher Thomas Aquinas, for instance, cites the work of the Greek philosopher Aristotle in reconciling religious faith with newly evident scientific facts. Later, during the Renaissance in Italy, the intellectual atmosphere was made more congenial for the impending revolution that is the Enlightenment (Kitromilides, 1996). During the Renaissance, it was primarily the Humanists, who held out a system of thought, which gave precedence to universal human values against those proposed by organized religion. Hence, the origins of the Enlightenment go a long way back. The following passage illustrates the core of Humanist philosophy, which has many common elements with the scientific and rational schools of thought of the Enlightenment:
“This celebration of human capacity, though it was mixed in the Renaissance with elements of gloom and superstition (witchcraft trials flourished in this period as they never had during the Middle Ages), was to bestow a powerful legacy on Europeans. The goal of Renaissance humanists was to recapture some of the pride, breadth of spirit, and creativity of the ancient Greeks and Romans, to replicate their successes and go beyond them. Europeans developed the belief that tradition could and should be used to promote change. By cleaning and sharpening the tools of antiquity, they could reshape their own time.” (Brians, Paul, 1998)
While there are critics in contemporary intelligentsia about the significance of the Enlightenment both during the period it played out as well as its legacy still manifest in modern institutions. But as a matter of fact, the cultural and intellectual trends started off by the Enlightenment have never been more vibrant and alive than they are today, more so in the academia. While intellectual in the extreme Left of the political spectrum criticize it for “promoting the ideals and power of the bourgeoisie at the expense of the working classes, postcolonial critics reject its idealization of specifically European notions as universal truths, and poststructuralists reject its entire concept of rational thought”, they miss an important point (Brians, Paul, 1998). Namely that the idea of basic and universal human rights that was one of its outcomes is a source of support and inspiration for many people across the world, who are valiantly engaged in their fight for liberation from governmental and corporate tyrannies. The fact that such academics as Noam Chomsky, Howard Zinn and Michael Parenti are campaigning against these oppressive forces in order to achieve the values of the Enlightenment is a testimony to its importance for modern Universities.
While the New World was late to catch up on the cultural and intellectual changes in Europe, the political events leading up to the Declaration of Independence provided a suitable opportunity for the values of the Enlightenment to thrive. Such luminaries as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and Tom Paine took inspiration from the Enlightenment while charting the course for the new nation that is the United States of America. All the founding fathers of the new nation were well traveled and well-versed with the intellectual culture of Europe. This experience was later to find sublime expression during the drafting of the Constitution of the United States of America. They were the first proponents of the separation of Church and State and gave a whole new meaning to the concept of God. For example,
“The God who underwrites the concept of equality in the Declaration of Independence is the same deist God Rousseau worshipped, not that venerated in the traditional churches which still supported and defended monarchies all over Europe. Jefferson and Franklin both spent time in France–a natural ally because it was a traditional enemy of England–absorbing the influence of the French Enlightenment. The language of natural law, of inherent freedoms, of self-determination which seeped so deeply into the American grain was the language of the Enlightenment, though often coated with a light glaze of traditional religion, what has been called our “civil religion.”” (Brians, Paul, 1998)
This background to the birth of the new nation is even evident today. The academic curriculum in the United States tries to entrench its students in the values set forth by the great era of the Enlightenment. Not only have the American universities absorbed and propagated the spirit of rationalism and scientific reason, but have also taken it to a different level. This is evident in the growing spread of Atheism and Agnosticism among the American people. Paradoxically, a sizeable section of the American demography still remains highly religious and conservative. In fact, in America of today, organized religious movements such as Christian Evangelism and the Enlightenment inspired Atheism and Agnosticism thrive side by side. This diversity adds a lot of vitality to the university life, where many debates are conducted around these subjects (Keohane, 1980).
Of course, alongside so many beneficial advancements that it provided to human civil societies, there are a few unsavory consequences of the Enlightenment as well. The most notable of this is the French Revolution. While the end achieved by the revolution was an admirable one, – that of creating the foundations of modern democracy – the means employed to achieve that end does not satisfy any system of ethics. In other words, there has been a lot of violence and bloodshed associated with the decimating of the French Royal family and its supporters. To this day, the magnitude and manner of casualties in the French Revolution remains a dark aspect of the modern French history. Hence, the Enlightenment should be judged by taking into account its progressive and regressive elements. But on the whole, the world of today is the better for it, for without it there would be no democracy as we know it and the scientific progress would have been stunted by the authority of the Church (Porter & Teich, 1981).
The same inferences are applicable to modern universities as well. So much of the liberal thought in the realm of politics, sociology and economics owe their origins to this great epoch in the history of western civilization. The ideas and theories of such revolutionary thinkers as Karl Marx, Adam Smith, Charles Darwin, etc was able to gain a foothold and thrive in the popular culture of today only because of the societal changes instigated by the Enlightenment. A subject such as evolutionary biology, which is a core ingredient in any high school curricula today, is made possible by those brave men, who stood by their beliefs and defended scientific rationale against religious authoritarianism. So, the present day academia owes a lot to the Enlightenment.
References:
Lewis, Hackett, The Age of Enlightenment, The European Dream Of Progress And Enlightenment, 1992, retrieved from <http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm> on 15th June 2008.
Enlightenment Political Thought, retrieved from <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/ENLIPOL.html> on 15th June 2008.
Rempel, Gerhard, AGE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT, retrieved from http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/enlightenment.html on 15th June 2008.
Brians, Paul, March 11, 1998. The Enlightenment, retrieved from <http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/hum_303/enlightenment.html> on 15th June 2008.
Mueller-Vollmer, K, 1997, The Hermeneutics Reader: Texts of the German Tradition from the Enlightenment to the Present
Porter, R & Teich, M, 1981, The Enlightenment in National Context, Oxford University Press, London.
May, H.F., 1976, The Enlightenment in America, Oxford University Press, New York
Keohane, N.O., 1980, Philosophy and the state in France: the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
Kitromilides, P., 1996, Enlightenment, Nationalism, Orthodoxy: Studies in the Culture and Political Thought of South-eastern Europe, Journal of Modern Greek Studies.
Gay, P., 1966, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, New York: Knopf.