The Sufi sect in the Indian subcontinent started out as a spiritual exercise based on “intuition, esoteric knowledge and experience of the mystical world”. Hence, the trend of intellectualizing religious principles, which found expression early in the millennium, was in opposition to this fledgling religious sect. At the time of its ascendancy in India, the Suhrawardi’ leaders played a preeminent role in mitigating the power held by the ruling classes of the day. In effect, the Suhrawardi leaders took Islam toward a fundamentalist path. Nevertheless, “the large number of eminent Sufis whose vision of Islamic spiritual life was broadly based gave moral courage to the people by awakening in them spiritual values and reliance on God during calamities such as drought, floods, and panic due to protracted wars and foreign invasions” (Behera, 2002).
Much of the early traditions of Sufism are still evident in India today. The most widespread of it is Sufi poetry, once considered “an expression of the mystic love of thirsty soul seeking an intuitive understanding of God” (Behera, 2002). It has now evolved into an avenue for giving vent to spiritual feelings, which was prohibited erstwhile in the orthodox interpretation of Islam. In India, Sufi poetry is also related to Hindi (the predominant language in the northern Indian landscape). By incorporating elements of both these languages, the Sufi poetry that is in existence today opens up to its practitioners new ways of spiritual expression, one which is more liberal and artistic. Considering the fact that the Sufi poets of yesteryears concurred with the torchbearers of the Bhakti movement of Hinduism, the Sufi poetry of today contains in it traces of the Bhakti movement as well. The leaders of these movements questioned the rigid formalism of their respective religions and openly rebelled against misinterpretations and meaningless rituals. In a way, these two religious movements brought the spiritual aspects of Islam and Hindusim to the fore (Eaton, 1974). An important factor in the growth of these religious movements alongside the rise in Sufi poetry is the royal patronage enjoyed by them. For example,
“The devotion of some of the rulers and members of the governing classes to the Sufis went a long way toward making possible the erection of such masterpieces of architecture as the tomb of the Suhrawardī Shaykh Rukn al-Dīn in Multan, the khanqah of Mir Sayyid ‘Alī Hamadānī in Srinagar (Kashmir), and the tombs of Shaykh Muhòammad Ghawth in Gwalior and Shaykh Salīm Chishtī at Fatehpur Sikri. Eve the Mughal miniatures did not neglect the Sufi landscape; some of them integrate Sufi themes with the bhaktas (Hindu devotees)… But due to the support of members of various royal families, genuine Sufism survived this and other threats and has managed to stay alive in India to this day.” (Behera, 2002)
In the Indian subcontinent, the term ‘Wahhabi’ has come to represent a group of Muslims known as the Barelvis as well as other defendants of the Sufi saints. The Barelvis, the disciples of Ahmad Reza Khan, comprise an important minority among Sunni Muslims in India who follow similar rituals and beliefs although don’t identity themselves orthodox Muslims. Another group Deobandis, in addition to the Barelvis forms the core of Sufi adherents in northern India. The Barelvis and Deobandis are a dominant class of Indian society that their affiliation with Sufism has induced lasting changes to the Indian theological scene. Even to this day, the shrines of Sufi saints attract thousands of followers from different religious backgrounds (not just Muslims) as well as socio-economic backgrounds. Nevertheless, this phenomenon is not without controversy in contemporary India, where the leaders of orthodox Muslim sects brand this concept of polytheism un-Islamic. Some even go to the extent of questioning the Sufi practices. For example, some of the opponents to Sufism declare that since the Sufi saints were all long gone, the cult’s practices don’t hold any meaning. They further argue that some of the practices of Sufis (including building of tombs and monuments) is un-Islamic and blasphemous. Some of the protests have even threatened to turn into violent proportions (Ernst, 2005).
The rich heritage of Sufism in India is inseparable with the rise of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. While there was much opposition to the liberal and sensual elements of the Sufi sect, it has to be remembered that without Sufism’s strong base, the Indian subcontinent would not have seen the growth of Islam as it is today. For example,
“The Sufis’ love and concern for the poor and downtrodden attracted many Hindus to accept Islam. Many of these were from the ‘low’ castes, who were crushed under the tyranny of the so-called ‘high’ caste Hindus. In order to make their message more easily understandable to the masses among whom they worked and preached, they adopted many local practices, motifs and idioms, and even spoke and wrote in the local languages, in contrast to both the court ulema, who wrote and spoke in Arabic and Persian, and to the Hindu Brahmins, who disdained the local dialects in favor of Sanskrit. Some Sufis were among the pioneers of literature in various local Indian languages. Their shrines attracted, as they continue to do today, large numbers of non-Muslims, too, who considered them as attained souls and close to God.” (Ernst, 2005)
The conversion of lower caste Hindus to Islam was such a major political event as well. Even to this day, most Muslims in India are classified under the backward classes’ category drawing upon their lower-caste Hindu heritage (Eaton, 1974). Sufism in India holds the distinction of being the first school of thought that confronted Islamic orthodoxy directly. As a result the history of Sufism in India is borne with these scars. From the days of Abu Yazid (who integrated principles of Hindu concept of Monism. As a result of such a complex growth of the sect, its image is distorted to a great extent. At the same time, the shifting of Islamic cultural centers from the Persian gulf to the North Indian heartland was a natural one. For example, Akbar, the greatest of Mogul rulers was a devoted patron to the Sufi school of thought in spite of the orthodoxy that prevailed in Islam at the time (Ernst, 2005).
The Bhakti movement provided the necessary conditions for the spread of Sufism. But some of the Sufi scholars, who came to India in the guise of mystics, misused the religious message to persuade and coerce their subjects and to convert the Hindus. Amir Khusrau, who was one such scholar as well as an accomplished musician “inspired many Hindu saints and poets like Kabir and Mira, Mir and Ghalib”. Other native Indian scholars who contributed to Sufi scriptures include Baba Farid, Nanak and Kusrau. This also explains why the predominantly Hindu India is the biggest centre of Sufism this day. All the major Sufi places of worship are also situated here. But the sad fact is, the followers of the faith are dwindling with each generation (Eaton, 1974).
Unfortunately today, the image of Sufism is tainted by the growth in Islamic terrorism. Given the volatile political systems in place in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh (together home to more than half of the total Muslim population), such misconceptions are not surprising. Nevertheless, it has to be mentioned that the “Wahhabism” that thrives in the Indian subcontinent shows that “the political response of any religious movement does not flow only from its theology but, equally, if not more, importantly, reflects the particular social and political context in which it finds itself”. This could not be truer in describing the state of Sufism in India today. Despite the negative representations that Indian Muslims are subject to, they have tried to distance themselves from violence, which shows an understanding on their part of the delicate political balance that exists in this part of the world between Hindus and Muslims. Even the few exceptions to this rule that exist in the Indian subcontinent are not always Muslim (which is another common mistake made by western observers) and a Sufi adherent even less so (Yoginder).
“In India, where Muslims are a minority, the challenge from Hindu extremism is much more threatening. Indeed, a review of native literature reveals that its diatribes are almost exclusively focused on other Muslim groups, seeking to rebut them as ‘un-Islamic’, while generally ignoring the Hindus or other communities living in India. Intra-Muslim, rather than Hindu-Muslim, differences and conflicts are of more concern to the religious establishment. However, even this should not be exaggerated, as these conflicts, although fanned by Ulema, have had only a limited impact on relations between ‘lay’ Muslims belonging to different Muslim groups, and has rarely taken the form of actual physical violence.” (Yoginder)
While the Bareilis and Deobandis comprise the majority of Sufis in India, even within this grouping some factionalism is seen. For example, the Sufis of India are divided into four major categories or Tareeqahs – Chistiya, Qadriyah, Nagshbandiya and Soharwardiyah. Even today some of the rivalry that existed between the different Tareeqahs can be seen (Eaton, 1974).
Sufism in India bears influences of Hindu mysticism as well. While the tenets of Hindu philosophy present much contrast to the core Islamic concepts, elements of these two theologies merged to give rise to the Naqshbandi order of the 13th century. From its glory days in the central Asian plateau, the Naqshbandiya had gradually traveled south and created a stronghold for itself in the Indian subcontinent. This school of Sufi thought had attracted followers right from the days of the Urdu poet Mir Dad. The trade links with the Arab world took this religious order to the Ottoman Empire, where it radicalized existing religious beliefs. In urban India of today, the Naqshbandi order of Sufi heritage finds expression in a much different way – suitable to the geo-political realities and technological advancements. The Chishtiya order is also prominent in India today and continues to inspire followers in the ways of “fervour and hospitality” (Sufism in India).
In spite of religious and political circumstances that are unfavorable to it, continues to thrive in India, but in a rather subdued way. With the growth of fundamentalist notions of Islam in the later half of last century came also a rejuvenation of Sufism. Sufism still thrives in “North Africa, Egypt, Sudan, Iran, Indonesia and Central Asia”, in addition to its foothold in the Indian subcontinent. Sufism today is still a formidable force in these parts of the world. It still influences and gives direction to thousands of faithful followers across the Muslim world, giving them support and comfort in a world that is becoming ever more politically and economically volatile.” (Sufism in India).
But nevertheless, the decline of Sufism from its glory days is indisputable. The present condition of this versatile and liberal religious faith fades in comparison to the reverence and follower-ship it elicited during the thirteenth century. A noted Islamic scholar made this following observation regarding the decline of Sufism and the underlying irony. Although it was meant as a general observation on the state of the sect, it is very relevant to the India of today:
“Why today Sufism is but a name with no underlying reality apparent. At one time, it was a reality, but without a name. Soon this Sufis will be as rare as the philosopher’s stone, and they will vanish from all corners of the world, and even if off in some distant province, a master be found, he would be considered of less value than earth. Yes, my friend, one must deplore this age, that men can live as they do. Alas! Those masters who once shielded their disciples have taken away the shield; and even if one finds among their successors, however rarely, a follower of the Path according to the Sunna tradition adhering to the rule of his predecessors, on retiring he finds himself confronted by a host of adversaries. However, if a beginner, whether in the past or present, takes one step in proposing some heretical innovation, he immediately gains himself a thousand disciples and lovers!” (Yoginder)
There is a crisis in Sufism of India today. The sect suffers from authoritarianism and the allied dangers. In other words, “certain Sufis are deifying various aspects of Sufism. A totalitarianism of the non-essential is being imposed.” The Persian Sufi Poet Saadi notes poignantly, “The path is the service of others, not prayer beads and dervish robes.” Similar sentiments were expressed by other Sufi intellectuals of today. The essence of Sufism’s present condition in India could be captured from the following passage:
“India’s future and prosperity critically depends on better relations between the different religious communities that have lived here together for centuries. These calls for the promotion of new understandings of each religion that can help promote genuine inter-faith dialogue and which at the same time critique theological formulations that promote inter-sectarian and inter-community strife and hatred. In this regard, it is obvious that the AH and similar Muslim groups, like their counterparts among the Hindus, would need to engage in considerable soul-searching.” (Sufism in India)
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